FACTORS GENERALLY PERPETRATING THE SPREAD OF HIV/AIDS IN MALAWI AND OTHER HIGH PREVALENCE COUNTRIES OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA. BY MARISEN MWALE

FACTORS GENERALLY PERPETRATING THE SPREAD OF HIV/AIDS IN MALAWI AND OTHER HIGH PREVALENCE COUNTRIES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA.

BY

MARISEN MWALE: PH FELLOW COM/CDC/PEPFAR

ATTACHED- MACRO SECRETARIAT [LILONGWE]

LECTURER

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND TEACHING STUDIES

MZUZU UNIVERSITY










HIV/AIDS remains a global health problem of unprecedented dimensions.

Unknown 27 years ago, HIV/AIDS has already caused an estimated 25 million deaths worldwide and has generated profound demographic changes in the most heavily affected countries. According to the Joint United Nations programme on HIV/AIDS, sub-Saharan Africa remains the epicenter of the pandemic and region most heavily affected by HIV/AIDS, accounting for 67% of all people living with HIV globally and for 75% of AIDS deaths in 2007 [UNAIDS, 2008]. Malawi is among the ten sub-Saharan countries with the highest HIV prevalence in the world, estimated at 12% of adults aged 15-49 by the National HIV Prevention Strategy [2009], and pegged at 11.9% by UNAIDS [2008]. Other sub-Saharan countries with highest global prevalence rates include; Swaziland- 26.1%, Lesotho- 23.2%, Botswana- 23.1%, South Africa- 18.1%, Zimbabwe- 15.3%, Namibia- 15.3%, Zambia- 15.2%, Mozambique- 12.2% and Kenya- high but not documented; in such descending order.

Several factors account for the high prevalence rate not only in Malawi in particular but sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. Such a constellation of variables range from cultural determinants across the continuum to socio-economic, environmental, psychosocial and other structural determinants. In Malawi culture is one of the most powerful precursors and predisposing factors to contracting HIV and it is interlinked with many other variables in the whole equation. There are several cultural practices across the nation from Nsanje to Chitipa that one can rightly construe as counterproductive relative to the fight against the spread of HIV/AIDS.

Kulowa kufa- a widow cleansing ritual -is practiced in the lower shire. Kusasa/kuchotsa fumbi- sexual cleansing of graduate initiates -is practiced in most parts of the southern region. Chokolo- widow inheritance- is practiced by many ethnic groups across the nation. Chimwanamaye- mutual exchange of wives or girl friends among peers as an expression of good friendship or to strengthen friendship ties- is practiced in certain parts of the southern and central regions. Nhlazi- offering a younger sister to a son in law in appreciation for proper care of the elder sister- is practiced in certain parts of the northern region. Kupimbira- offering in marriage a young girl of unmarriageable age in exchange for material or financial support – is practiced in the northern region. Mitala- polygamy- is practiced by several ethnic groups across the nation and lastly Fisi/chipambanjete- a ritual where some men are tasked with anonymously deflowering virgins- is a practice common in both the southern and central regions of the nation. Above all else cultural initiations of adolescents among the Chewa of central Malawi, the Yao of southern Malawi, the Lomwe of southern Malawi and several other ethnic groupings even in the northern region have a bearing in the spread of the pandemic. It is believed adolescents who have been initiated or even circumcised are more likely to be sexually experienced and active compared to those who are not. This is considered the case because the curriculum in traditional initiation rites condones and encourages sexual exploration. Such cultural dynamics as have been highlighted by no means posit not an optimistic overture in this struggle against HIV/AIDS bearing in mind that old traditions die hard with experience having explicitly taught us that many societies vehemently resist change to their long cherished traditional values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors.

Multiple and concurrent partnership is another factor that is exponentially perpetrating the spread of HIV/AIDS in Malawi and other sub-Saharan high prevalence nations. Especially so among men of economic standing and even those construed as influential, having several partners is seen as prestigious- a sign of machismo, popularity, potency, virility and manhood. This behaviour is considered normative and is even promoted and condoned by women. Faithfulness to one partner is stereotyped as a sign of weakness which is culturally construed to be a resultant of the man having been given love portions by his wife. Women are thus expected to remain faithful but men to philander irrespective of marital status. These attitudes, beliefs and values militate against contemporary preventive philosophies such as zero-grazing or one-love where persons are expected to be faithful to only one partner of their choosing in marriage or otherwise.

Psychologically research has further indicated that most people do not consider themselves to be at risk of infection by HIV either as a function of cognitive processes such as optimism of personal precautions taken or motivational processes such as are a result of wishful thinking. This has been shown to be heightened even against odds of risky sexual debuts or exposure to HIV. Among the youth for instance lack of intra-personal skills to resist social pressure has been shown to exacerbate such confounded risk perception registering a gap in the need to enhance life-options and social skills training in the age group. Skills training for instance self-efficacy training motivates the youth to uphold the belief and confidence in their ability to withstand social pressure vis-à-vis indulgence in risky sexual behaviours. UNICEF [2006] states that about nine in every ten young people aged 15-19 in sub-Saharan Africa have heard of HIV/AIDS but most are not familiar with the ABCs of prevention- abstinence, being faithful to one partner and use of condoms. This scenario again paints a gloomy and pessimistic picture in the war against AIDS since the youth provide us with a window of hope not only in the area of mitigation but overall curtailing of the pandemic.

A culture of silence also surrounds most reproductive health issues with many parents not comfortable with and considering such sexual issues taboo. Compounding this lack of education is the fact that most young people are left to learn about sex from peers or worse still as already highlighted in the foregoing through initiation rituals where they are exposed to a curricular that perpetrates sexual activity hence fuelling the spread of the pandemic. Many youths are also economically dependent and socially inexperienced and not having been taught or otherwise learnt to protect themselves means being at pernicious risk to the shackles of HIV/AIDS. Psychological egocentrism further fosters and instills a sense of invulnerability among so many teenage youth.

Notwithstanding HIV/AIDS has had several devastating repercussions in Malawi in particular and sub-Saharan Africa in general. First and foremost HIV/AIDS is depleting adult productive capacity with teachers, doctors, lawyers, farmers, engineers and what have you falling prey to the deadly scourge. Secondly, public resources are being drained in no measure comparable to any other plague in history. Especially for the ever dependent economies of Africa and Asia, this has fostered economic underdevelopment and overreliance on western donors further perpetrating the dependency syndrome. Thirdly, relative to life expectancy, gains made previously are drastically being reduced. AIDS is erasing decades of progress made in extending life expectancy which for Malawi is now tagged at around 37 or 40 thereof, whereas it could have been 62 in sub-Saharan Africa in general without AIDS.  HIV/AIDS has above all else also put extra pressure on the already limited resources through overtaxing health care facilities, payment of premature death benefits, caring for AIDS orphans and many other liabilities bequeathed. Governments are spending a lot to purchase drugs to curtail opportunistic infections and on ARVs for AIDS patients hence taxing the health sector already overstretched by other tropical diseases as Tuberculosis and Malaria. The question however still remains whether we are fighting a winning battle considering the many variables and factors militating against behavioral change in our cultural, socio-economic as well as psychosocial domains. It might be plausible to bet we still have higher mountains to climb and a long way to go.

References

NAC (2009) National HIV Prevention Strategy [2009-2013]

UNAIDS (2008) Report on the global AIDS epidemic, Geneva.

UNICEF (2006) How does HIV affect young people? http://www.unicef.org.

DRAFT MANIFESTO- THE MALAWI SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY [FOUNDER- MARISEN MWALE]

DRAFT POLITICAL MANIFESTO

‘No country has ever been able to maintain, over a considerable period of time, any form of democratic government without the aid of political parties. And it is safe to prophesy that no country ever will.’  [W.B. MUNRO].

‘An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind.’ [MAHATMA GANDHI]

THE MALAWI SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY

Slogan: MSDP-----Unity [2]

Unity---------is power [2]

Malawi-------we can [2]

Motto: UNITY FOR SOCIAL, AGRARIAN, DEMOCRATIC AND ECONOMIC EMANCIPATION OF ALL MALAWIANS.

Emblem:  THE LION and THE ELEPHANT

Color:    LIGHT GREEN and ORANGE

GENERAL TENETS OF THE PARTY

The party will be ‘always present- everywhere present- and vocally present’. The party of choice for the people and for the nation. The right choice of a party for all nationals of Malawi.

The party will be rigidly socialistic and democratic in character a mixed-economy, a more evolved socialism that will have a positive influence on the evolution of democracy not only in Malawi but in Africa as a whole.

The party will strive to achieve political, social and economic emancipation of all people without favour or prejudice.

It will be a party of individual membership claiming to represent all classes and denying that economic relationships alone shape society.

Individuals from all walks of life will be united together by common interest to form the MSDP to promote national goals including unity and eliminate political, religious, racial and ethnic intolerance.

Every Malawian national will enjoy security and possess liberty and the rule of law will be upheld at all cost with no scrupulous abuse of power to the detriment of the citizenry.

The party will not only entertain support from those of moderate income, neither will it from only the rich but also the poor and underprivileged making it a party not only affiliated towards grassroots persons but also the middle-class and upper-class citizenry combined into a formidable special interest base.

A party of the people, for the people- the people’s choice representing all Malawian nationals and all points of view in the country.

It will stand for the upholding of all civil liberties as demanded by the exigencies of modern times and espouse the cause for religious freedoms and freedom of worship in accordance to one’s conscience as protected by our sovereign constitution.

The party will champion the cause of political liberty, the right of every citizen to an equal share of the suffrage and all other civil liberties.

The party will strive to achieve political, social and economic emancipation of all people, more particularly of those who directly depend upon their labour; manual, mental, agrarian or otherwise.

The party’s constitution will make it clear that ‘workers by brain’ or the elite will be no less welcome than ‘workers by hand’ or the agrarian and other manual workers.

The party will be truly national and not pretend to be so- Northern, Central, Southern members will be equally entertained- Christians  Muslims and traditional religions alike –all religious, cultural and traditional entities will be entertained without segregation or prejudice based on color, creed, race, religion, social status or otherwise.

The party will foster a mixed economic system in which private as well as public forms of property will co-exist.

One may say it is not entirely socialistic but it will no longer be hinged on the domination of the state by monopoly capital as is typical of western capitalistic economies.

The paramount question will be to preserve to the greatest possible extent the productive forces and social services already created, recognizing the role which private enterprise has in a modern democratic dispensation.

The communiqué adopting commitment to a pluralistic-libertarian ideal implying support for the plurality of political parties, the right to existence and activity of the opposition parties, democratic alteration between the majority and minority; liberty of thought and expression, freedom of press and other civil liberties.

The party will not only desire a mixed economic system; it will espouse the maintenance and protection of civil liberties so that people enjoy the blessings of life in a free and plural society.

It will cherish the democratization of economic, social and political life- in essence democratization carried to its logical conclusion of SOCIALISM.

The socialism for which we strive for as a party will be profoundly democratic- not only because by eliminating exploitation we will create for the working people the essential conditions for their freedoms but also because we will guarantee, develop and extend all the liberties which our people have won by suffrage.

Such is the socialism inseparable from liberty which we desire for our country and which we believe we will build.

Not by revolution or arms but by parliamentary means as well as keeping the confidence of the people through universal suffrage.

Not fostering political singularism as was espoused in communism but multiformity as is typical of all modern democratic dispensations.

MSDP takes it for granted that there will be several parties, even of the socialist, democrat, progressive, labour, congress or otherwise and all should have the freedom to take part in the struggle for power for the sake of realizing the goal of achieving social and economic justice.

The party will fight to restore, defend and develop democracy within a socialistic society which will have at its foundation the value of individual and collective liberties and their guarantee; the principles of the secular, non-ideological nature of the state and its democratic organization; the plurality of political parties and the possibility of alteration, autonomy of trade unions, religious freedoms, freedom of expression, culture, art and the sciences.

No policies will be entertained by the party that will in any way jeopardize not to mention compromise on nationalism and solidarity for the people of Malawi.

All persons within the nation regardless of race, creed, ethnicity or social origin, property, birth, gender, language, region of origin, religion, disability, health-status, and social-status, nationality or otherwise will be treated with utmost equality and dignity in accordance with the universal principles of natural justice.

Equality of opportunity, access to education, social and economic amenities and an equitable share of the developmental cake and resources for all regions nationwide will be fostered regardless of political affiliation, ethnicity or otherwise.

No retrogressive factional or sectarian philosophies based on tribal grounds or ethnicity, region of origin or cultural traditions will be inculcated by the party with experience having taught us that such breeds a recipe for dissension.

No utilization of cheap gimmicking, cynicism or propaganda through the media of mass communication or otherwise shall be used by the party to denigrate or violate the dignity and privacy of other persons on the grounds of differences of political opinion in the event that it wins an election.

The party will strive for the Malawian spirit rooted on Unity, Discipline and Tolerance and the restoration of the friendly warm heart we are renowned for as Malawians worldwide.

A pro-African but nevertheless globally oriented foreign policy will be fostered.

The party shall affiliate itself with the Democrats in America, the Social democrats in Germany as well as the Labour party in the United Kingdom and other African political parties that share the same political principles, sentiments, and tenets.

In terms of code of conduct discipline will be the by-word for all persons willing to be affiliated with the party.

The democratic doctrine of ‘Separation of Powers’ will be strictly adhered to without any compromises or abuse.

Fundamental characteristics to be upheld by the party

High centralization

The party will have a strong organizational framework both at the national and local level.

Power will rest within the central organ of the party [National Governing Council].

A direct chain of connectivity between the central organ at headquarters and local units will be upheld.

Firm and vigilant control of the party over its members in Parliament will be the by-word.

Continuity of operation

The party will endeavor to be continually in operation even if it entails having lost in any election.

The party will not go to slumber neither will it doze between elections.

Though the effort in-between elections may not be as intense as during the period directly prior to elections the campaigns for the party are going to be incessant---hence always present, everywhere present and vocally present.

Moderation and compromise

A tradition of moderation and compromise shall always be pursued by the party so as to instill peaceful co-existence and tolerance among Malawians.

Especially so if the party loses in an election- it will endeavor to uphold constructive criticism of the ruling entity---Government.

The party will not obstruct the working of the RULING PARTY [GOVERNMENT] in any way possible in the event of having lost an election AND it will expect the same from other parties in the event that it wins an election.

The party will not make extravagant and wild promises to turn public opinion against any incumbent GOVERNMENT and it will also expect the same from other parties.

In short the party will uphold a tradition of moderation and compromise at all cost.

PARTY ORGANIZATION

To direct the work of the National Governing Council and look after all the matters during the Presidential campaigns, a Chairperson will by convention be selected.

He need not RIGIDLY be one of the committee members.

The Chairperson may be the personal choice of the party’s candidate for the Presidency but may also not be.

He will be of great significance such that he may determine the party’s failure or success at a Presidential election.

He will decide how and where the campaign funds shall be spent and plan the election strategy, selecting the weak spots in the fortifications of his adversary and bolstering up the weak places in his own.

His job calls for a super-politician who will apply the constructs of political-psychology, philosophy, and all the other faculties at his disposal such that if the party wins the Presidency he gets an influential voice in the distribution of patronage and he himself also is given an important office  even a post in the cabinet.

The National Governing Council will maintain a number of other sub-Committees or auxiliary Committees among which will be the following:

·       Executive Committee

·       Finance Committee

·       Publicity Committee

·       Speaker’s Committee

All these Committees will function under the direct supervision of the Chairman.

The Secretary General and the Treasurer as well as the Publicity Secretary are also other important party officers at the National Level.

The Secretary General will hold charge of the party’s national headquarters and supervise vast amounts of correspondence besides handling other varied campaign activities.

The post of the Treasurer is also extremely important.

Upon him rests the chief responsibility for raising the millions which are to be rendered necessary for the running of the election campaign.

The Publicity Secretary holds the responsibility of disseminating party information, responding to any questions raised against the party and will work directly in liaison with the Chairperson.

Members of Parliament

The members of Parliament belonging to MSDP constitute the Parliamentary MSDP.

They will elect their leader in Parliament who will work in liaison with the party’s National Governing Council [NGC].

The Parliamentary MSDP consults the NGC and will be guided generally by the policies formulated by NGC and the manifesto of the party.

DRAFTED BY MARISEN MWALE [FOUNDER OF THE PARTY]

TO ALL WELLWISHERS:

Input:  marisen.mwale@yahoo.co.uk

Cell:  [+265] 0 999 245 017

          [+265] 0 888 413 329

Contributions- First merchant- Mzuzu- 5172815204-savings

                   Standard bank- Mzuzu- 0121201353300-savings

            

A POEM: TO THIS BIZARRE GENERATION BY MARISEN MWALE

WOE A GENERATION

They sing- sing dirty hymns of broken chains and political freedom

Yet deep down they hoist dirges of smug oppression

See their crimson lipstick and bloody cladded hands

Testifying of a regime at war against its innocent citizenry

They preach- preach of a kingdom of eternal bliss

Yet their outlook depicts nothing less than ineffable diablerie

See whips clad sardonically against their poor-destitute folks

Testifying of an era amass with religious business comedians

They showcase arrows and spears of a war against an AIDS monster

Yet they tromp around zippers down and skirts akimbo

See their ailing demeanors and remorse starved facades

Testifying of blatant lip-service and double standards

Woe a generation not spared its unequivocal share

In vicissitudes of hypocritical masqueraders

Maestro ‘DAMBUDZO’ Williams [pseudonym/pen name/alias]

POLITICAL POETRY BY MARISEN MWALE: WOE A GENERATION

WOE A GENERATION

They sing- sing dirty hymns of broken chains and political freedom

Yet deep down they hoist dirges of smug oppression

See their crimson lipstick and bloody cladded hands

Testifying of a regime at war against its innocent citizenry

They preach of a kingdom of eternal bliss

Yet their outlook depicts nothing less than ineffable diablerie

See weeps clad sardonically against their poor-destitute folks

Testifying of an era amass with religious business comedians

They showcase arrows and spears of a war against an AIDS monster

Yet they tromp around zippers down and skirts akimbo

See their ailing demeanor and remorse starved facades

Testifying of blatant lip-service and double standards

Woe a generation not spared its unequivocal share

In vicissitudes of hypocritical masqueraders

Marisen Mwale

ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR: SOME ANALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS BY MARISEN MWALE

ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR-

SOME ANALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

BY

MARISEN MWALE

Attitudes are evaluative statements either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people, or events. According to Fazio and Roskos [1944] attitudes are associations between attitude objects- virtually any aspect of the social world- and evaluations of those objects. Judd et al. (1991) define attitudes as lasting evaluations of various aspects of the social world to the effect of being coded in memory. On the other hand, Fein (1999) considers an attitude as a positive, negative or mixed reaction to a person, object or idea. Attitudes reflect what we feel- for instance when I say ‘I like my job,’ I am expressing my attitude about work. According to Rosenberg and Hovland [1990], attitudes are predispositions to respond to some class of stimuli with certain classes of response.

These classes of response are:

Affective: what a person feels about the attitude object--------how favorably or unfavorably it’s evaluated.

Cognitive: what a person believes the attitude object is like, objectively.

Behavioural: sometimes called the conative; how a person actually responds, or intends to respond, to the attitude object.

An attitude can be thought of as a blend or integration of beliefs and values.

Beliefs represent the knowledge or information we have about the world. These may be inaccurate or incomplete and non-evaluative.

Values refer to an individual’s sense of what is desirable, good, valuable, worthwhile and so on. While most adults will have many thousands of beliefs, they have only hundreds of attitudes and a few dozen values. The belief that ‘discrimination is wrong is a value statement.’ But such an opinion is the cognitive component of an attitude. It sets the stage for the more critical part of an attitude-----its affective component. Affect is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude and is reflected in the statement ‘ I don’t like John because he discriminates against minorities.’

Finally affect can lead to behavioural outcomes. The behavioural component of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something. Viewing attitudes as made up of three components----cognition, affect and behaviour---is helpful towards understanding their complexity and the potential relationship between attitudes and behaviour.

We need however to bear in mind that the term attitude essentially relates to the affective part of the three components. In contrast to values, attitudes are less stable. In organizations, attitudes are important because they affect job behaviour.

Importance of attitudes

Attitudes are significant for two major reasons:

·       Firstly attitudes strongly influence social thought and the conclusions and inferences we reach.

·       Secondly attitudes are assumed to influence behavior and if they do they can thus help s to predict behavior.

Attitudes and Consistency

Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behaviour. This means that individuals seek to reconcile divergent attitudes and align their attitudes and behaviour so that they appear rational and consistent. This can be done by altering either the attitudes or the behaviour, or by developing a rationalization for the discrepancy. Tobacco executives provide an example. One might wonder how these people cope with the ongoing barrage of data linking cigarette smoking and negative health outcomes. They can deny that any clear causation between smoking and cancer, for instance, has been established. They can brainwash themselves by continually articulating the benefits of tobacco.

They can acknowledge the negative consequences of smoking but rationalize that people are going to smoke and that tobacco companies merely promote freedom of choice. They can accept the research evidence and begin actively working to make more healthy cigarettes or at least reduce their availability to more vulnerable groups, such as teenagers. Or they can quit their job because the dissonance is too great. In as far as Tourism is concerned it has been alluded that since Tourism is associated with westernization, it has negative repercussions on culture. Managers in the Tourism industry may try to resolve this inconsistency or dissonance. First they can deny that any clear correlation between Tourism and westernization exists.

Second they can brainwash themselves by continually articulating the benefits of Tourism e.g. being a foreign currency earner. Third they can acknowledge the negative consequences of Tourism but rationalize that people are going to embrace it anyway because that promotes freedom of choice and globalization. Forth they can accept the research evidence and begin actively incorporating aspects of culture into Tourism as happens in Malawi where traditional dances and other cultural entities as souvenirs, curios and such other paraphernalia reflect cultural and traditional values.

Or they can quit their job because the dissonance is too great.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive dissonance denotes an unpleasant state that occurs when we notice that various attitudes we hold or our attitudes and behavior are sometimes inconsistent.

Leon Festinger [1950], proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance. This theory sought to explain the linkage between attitudes and behaviour. Dissonance means an inconsistency. Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that an individual might perceive between two or more of his or her attitudes, or between his or her behaviour and attitudes. Festinger argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance and, hence, the discomfort. Therefore, individuals will seek a stable state in which there is a minimum of dissonance. Festinger proposed that the desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by:

·       First, the importance of the elements creating the dissonance.

·       Second, the degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements.

·       Third, the rewards that may be involved in dissonance.

If the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the pressure to correct this imbalance will be low.

How we reduce dissonance

1.    Self-justification and trivialization: the dissonance theory assumes that we are motivated to justify our behavior in order to reduce our internal discomfort and to perceive the attitude or behavior alternative left out as relatively unimportant. Research indicates that after making important decisions we usually reduce dissonance by upgrading the chosen alternative and trivializing the alternative forgone.

2.    We might change our behavior/attitude so that they are more consistent with each other.

3.    We can acquire new information that supports our attitude or behavior.

4.    We may be forced to comply by being caught in a situation where we have to do something contrary to our inclinations.

Theoretical implications to organizations

The question is what the organizational implications of the theory are. The theory can help to predict the propensity to engage in attitude and behavioural change. If individuals are required, for example, by the demands of their job to say or do things that contradict their personal attitude, they will tend to modify their attitude in order to make it compatible with the cognition of what they have said or done. Additionally, the greater the dissonance after it has been moderated by importance, choice, and reward factors----the greater the pressure to reduce it.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baron, R.A; Byrne, D (2004) Social Psychology. New York: Pearson.

Gollwitzer, P. M; Barth, J.A (1996) The psychology of action: Linking motivation and cognition in behavior. New York: Guilford.

Harmon-Jones, E; Mills, J [Eds.] (1999) Cognitive dissonance: Progress on a pivotal theory in social psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Shavitt, S; Brock, T.C (1994) Persuasion: Psychological insights and perspective. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS: SOME INTRODUCTORY CONSIDERATIONS -BY MARISEN MWALE

PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS:

SOME INTRODUCTORY CONSIDERATIONS-

BY

MARISEN MWALE

Brief introduction to Psychology

Psychology is an offspring of the subject Philosophy. In other words it has its roots in Philosophy. With the passage of time, psychology has undergone a transformation from concern with sheer speculation as is the case with philosophy to a concern with scientific procedure. The emergency of psychology as a separate discipline is generally dated at 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Wundt and his co-workers were attempting to investigate ‘the mind’ through introspection [observing and analyzing the structure of their own conscious mental processes]. The emphasis on measurement and control used in introspection marked the separation of psychology from its parent discipline of philosophy. Introspectionism was challenged by the early twentieth century particularly by an American psychologist, John B. Watson who believed that the results of introspection could never be proved or disproved. Consequently, Watson [1913] proposed that psychologists should confine themselves to studying behavior, since only this is measurable and observable by more than one person.

Watson’s form of psychology was known as behaviorism. A reaction against both introspection OR structuralism and behaviorism came from the gestalt school of psychology, which emerged in the 1920s in Australia and Germany. Gestalt psychologists were mainly interested in perception, and believed that perceptions couldn’t be broken down in the way that Wundt proposed. The gradual divergence of this subject from philosophy to science has been responsible for the change in its meaning from time to time.

Definition

The word psychology is derived from Greek psyche [mind, soul or spirit] and logos [discourse or study]. Literally, then, psychology is the ‘study of the mind’. In simple terms Psychology can be defined as the science of mind and behaviour.

It concerns itself with how and why organisms do what they do.

·        Why birds sing

·        Why some insects fly and not others

·        Why plants transpire

·        Why children learn

All these are behaviours and psychology is the science that studies them.

According to Bernstein [2000] Psychology is the science that seeks to understand behaviour and mental processes and applies that understanding in the service of human welfare.

Goals of Psychology

The goals of Psychology are similar to those of any other science.

To describe

After observing and measuring behaviour and mental processes the psychologist has to describe the aforementioned.

To explain

The meaning of data collected in study.

Quite often, psychologists explain data by formulating a theory.

A theory is a coherent group of assumptions that can explain data.

To predict

Behaviour and mental processes by using a set of circumstances to anticipate what will happen next.

To use

Utilization or application of the knowledge gained through study to promote human welfare.

Meaning of the term behaviour

The term behaviour is taken in its totality connoting a wide and comprehensive meaning:

·        ‘Any manifestation of life is activity’ says Woodworth [1948] and behaviour is a collective name for these activities.

·        The term behaviour therefore includes all the motor or conative activities [like walking, swimming, dancing etc], cognitive activities

     [like thinking, reasoning, imagining etc], and affective activities

     [ like feeling happy, sad, angry etc].

·        It also includes not only the conscious behaviour and activities of the human mind but also the subconscious and unconscious. Consequently, it covers not only the overt behaviour but also the covert behaviour involving all the inner experiences and mental processes.

·        It is not limited to the study of human behaviour. The behaviour of animals, insects, birds and plants is also covered in psychology.

In a nutshell the term behaviour refers to the entire life activities and experiences of all the living organisms.

Nature of Psychology

1.     Psychology has both theoretical and applied aspects like any other science.

2.     Like any other science psychology believes in cause and effect relationships hence emphasizing that every behaviour has its roots---the factors of its causing and nurturing.

3.     Psychology like any other science does not believe in mere heresy. It uses the scientific methods of inquiry----like observation and experimentation in studying behaviour.

4.     What is established and discovered in science is always open to verification and alteration---tentative and subject to change. The same is true with psychology.

5.     Like any other science the established facts, laws and principles of psychology enjoy universal applicability.

Methods of research in psychology

Naturalistic observation

This research paradigm involves observing or studying animals or people in their natural habitats. For example students are best studied in a classroom environment. The researcher does not interfere with the behaviour of the observed to avoid bias. Such observer bias is also denoted the guinea pig effect or the Pygmalion effect.

Case study

With the purpose of generating hypothesis psychologists examine an individual’s personal life, such as how a teacher plans a lesson.

Survey

This method uses questionnaires administered to samples of people from what is referred to as a population to find out about attitudes and behaviour.

First identify the group of subjects he/she may wish to survey- population.

Second select the subjects to participate in the survey at random- sample.

This ensures that every subject or respondent is given an equal chance of being involved in the study.

Correlational study

In this research paradigm psychologists consider the relationship between two or more variables which can either be positive or negative. A correlation coefficient is computed to establish either a positive or negative relationship between the variables under study. Once an association between variables is established, it becomes possible for one to predict important events with regard to the variables. Many variables can be studied using this method. However, it should be remembered that correlation does not mean causality. Correlation cannot establish cause and effect but can only predict.

Experimentation

In this research paradigm psychologists treat an object of study in a specific way and then observe the effects of that treatment. Whereas correlational research only predicts about behaviour experiments can be able to establish cause and effect------that is roots and nurturance of behaviour. In experiments, psychologists study animals as well as people. Animals are studied either out of interest in animals themselves or as models for human behaviour. This may create misconceptions two of which are:

Anthropomorphic fallacy- tendency to treat animals as if they have human characteristics.

Rattomorphic fallacy-  tendency to treat human beings as if they were rats.

What kind of science is Psychology

Psychology is a behavioural science. Unlike the natural sciences of Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics which are concerned with matter-----Psychology deals with the behaviour of organisms. And behaviour is quite dynamic and unpredictable.

Scope of Psychology

The scope of a subject denotes

·        Its limits of operation as well as its branches.

Psychology is divided into two major branches which have their sub-branches and these are applied psychology and pure psychology.

Branches of pure psychology

·        General psychology

·        Abnormal psychology

·        Social psychology

·        Experimental psychology

·        Physiological psychology

·        Para-psychology

·        Geo-psychology

·        Developmental psychology

Branches of Applied psychology

Concerned with the application of theories, principles and techniques of psychology includes:

·        Clinical psychology

·        Industrial psychology

·        Legal psychology

·        Military psychology

·        Political psychology

·        Organizational psychology

·        Marketing psychology

·        Educational psychology

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Simply put Educational psychology is the study of the learner, learning and teaching. In some more comprehensive way it is the study of the ways in which the learner can most effectively be brought into successful interaction with the material to be learnt, the learning situation and the teacher who provides the learning opportunity.

The roles of Educational Psychology in the teaching/learning process

1.     To understand how learning processes can be effectively guided by taking into account the special circumstances of the student’s setting.

2.     To determine how teaching can be made more effective, how educational goals can be made more meaningful, and how desirable educational goals can be achieved.

3.     To evaluate and influence the curriculum changes which may be needed to make learning more relevant to the cultural setting.

4.     To help solve learning problems and select suitable materials that relate to the student’s background.

5.     To guide or indicate how children can receive social learning and how they should be challenged to perform social services that may develop their community.

Focal areas of Educational Psychology

·        The learner

·        The learning process

·        The learning situation

The learner

Is the most important of the three elements. Not only because people are more important than processes or situations, but primarily because without the learner there is no teaching. The learner is the focus of any teaching. It is obvious that, unless someone is learning there is no teaching, just as there is no selling unless someone is buying. The word ‘Learner’ is used for persons who individually or collectively comprise the class and on whose behalf educational programmes exist and operate.

Factors considered when a teacher focuses on learners include:

·        Family background

·        Prior knowledge

·        Motivation

·        Developmental level

·        Interests

·        Attitude

All these factors influence how learners acquire knowledge.

The learning process

Is next in order of importance. It refers to the process by which people change their behaviour, improve performance, reorganize their thinking or become familiar with new concepts and information.

Important aspects of this element include:

·        When people learn, the change in their behaviour may not be directly observed [perceiving, thinking, remembering and identifying] or it may be observed [writing, attending and talking].

·        Learning is an ongoing process that begins at birth and continues in some form or another until one dies.

·        Learning can be explained in terms of what happens when students learn, why and how they learn, what teachers want them to learn and why they learn what teachers do not want them to learn.

The learning situation

Refers to the environment where learners find themselves and where the learning process takes place. Some parts of the environment may be immediate such as the classrooms and the library. Other aspects may be remote but relevant, such as the relationship between the school committee and the head teacher.

Importance of Educational psychology to teachers

Educational psychology serves as a foundation discipline in education in the same way that physical science serves engineering [Gage, Berliner, 1999].

Educational psychology serves as a guideline to educational practice.

For example it offers important ideas about learning and about the influences that families, business, industry and the community have on learning.

In very specific ways Educational psychology may help a teacher to:

·        Understand the nature of the learner and the learning process. This means taking into consideration growth and development patterns of learners to maximize learning opportunities.

·        Understand the many variables that interact as learning takes place in the classroom.

This ensures greater understanding of the learning environment to help pupils achieve their best,

·        Understand the role of the teacher in the classroom in view of the social interactions within the classroom and other psychological variables that affect social behaviour.

·        Structure subject matter, learn how materials are transferred in teaching and evaluate what has been taught.

·        Understand oneself as both a teacher and a person which is necessary so that a teacher controls role conflict.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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          W.H.Freeman and Co.

Dembo, M [1991] Applying Educational Psychology. New York: Longman

Erickson, E [1968] Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.

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          Kalat, J [1990] Psychology: An Introduction; Belmount: Wordsworthy.

Kaplan, P [1986] Child’s Odyssey: Child and Adolescent Development. New York: West Publishing Co.

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